STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness
Consciousness a persons awareness of and responsiveness to mental
processes and the environment.
Waking conscientiousness mental state that encompasses the thoughts,
feelings, and perceptions that occur .
Altered States of Consciousness mental states that
normal waking consciousness; these states are more detached from the external world and may occur naturally (e.g., sleep) or be intentionally induced (e.g., consuming stimulants).
Sleep
Current thinking about why we sleep
Benefits of sleep:
when we are awake and reasonably alert
differ noticeable from
Boosts
function, both physically and mentally response
Restorative
immune system
the body of chemicals released when cells use energy, including adenosine(which builds up during the day and ultimately signals the brain that it is time to sleep)Enhances creativity, decision-making and problem-solving
Instrumental to the formation of long-term memories
Cleanses
Circadian rhythms and their relationship to jet lag
Circadian Cycles: The Biological Clock
Circadian rhythms a regular biological rhythm with a period of approximately 24
hours that corresponds to the solar cycle of light and dark.
Jet lag is the result not of lack of sleep but of desynchronization; sleep-and-wake cycles
adapt quickly to time zone changes, but hormones, body temperature, and digestive cycles adapt more slowly. This asynchrony results in feelings of grogginess and lethargy.
The sleep cycle, distinguishing between the various sleep stages.
The Rhythms of Sleep
Going to sleep losing awareness and becoming less responsive to stimuli.
o StageOnesleepislightsleep,markedbyslowingofthepulse,muscle
relaxation, and rolling movements of the eyes; stage 1 is brief and the sleeper can
be easily aroused during it.
o StageTwodeepersleepthatisoftencharacterizedbythepresenceofsleep
spindles, bursts of brain wave activity.
o StageThreehighlightedbythefirstappearanceofdeltawaves,theslowestand largest waves; sleeper is not easily aroused during stages 2 or 3 nor is the sleeper responsive to lights or noises.
o StageFourthebodyisatitslowestleveloffunctioning
Rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep occurs four or five times a night, replacing Stage One sleep in the sleep-wake cycle and is accompanied by paralysis of the voluntary muscles. REM sleep is called paradoxical sleep because most physiological measures (brain activity, blood pressure, heart rate, etc.) approximate those during waking consciousness, but the person in REM sleep is deeply asleep and incapable of moving.
Sleep patterns change with age and vary considerably from person to person.o Infantstypicallyneed13-16hoursofsleepduringtheirfirstyear.
Sleep Deprivation
Between one-third and one-half of all adults regularly fail to get enough sleep, and nearly 80% of adolescents fail to get the recommended 9 hours of sleep for their age group. Sleep deprivation leads to many cognitive deficits and physical problems:
o Reactiontimeslowsdown
o Logicalthinkingisimpaired
o Productivitydecreasesanderrorsincrease
o Riskofautomobileaccidentsincreases
o On-the-joberrorsinjudgmentincrease
o Increasedriskofheartdisease,asthma,strokes,highbloodpressure,anddiabeteso Increasedriskofobesityinchildren
o Increasedratesofdepressioninadolescentsandcollegestudents
Taking short naps (from 20-60 minutes) can improve alertness, reduce irritability, and improve performance.
Key sleep disorders, distinguishing between nightmares and night terrors and between insomnia, apnea and narcolepsy.
Sleep Disorders
Sleeptalking and Sleepwalking usually occurring during Stage 4, sleeptalking and
sleepwalking are common among children and adults.
Nightmares and Night terrors
o NightmaresarebaddreamsthatoccurduringREMsleep;wecanrememberthem
in the morning.
o NightterrorsoccurduringNREMsleep;peoplegenerallycannotbeawakened
during them and do not remember them in the morning.
Insomnia, Apnea, and Narcolepsy
o Insomniaaffectsapproximately30%ofadultsworldwide;itisoftenstress-
related and temporary.
o Insomniacanbecausedbypsychologicalproblems,interpersonaldifficulties,or
bad sleep habits (like an inconsistent bedtime).
o Sleepapneaisassociatedwithbreathingdifficultiesatnight;inseverecases,the
victim stops breathing.
o Narcolepsyisahereditarysleepdisordercharacterizedbysuddennoddingoff
during the day and sudden loss of muscle tone and expression.
Dreams vivid visual and auditory experiences that occur primarily during REM periods of sleep.
The average person has 4 or 5 dreams a night.
Most dreams last about as long as the events would in real life.
Internal (like hunger) and external (like a train whistle) stimuli can influence dream
content.
Why Do We Dream?
Dreams as Unconscious Wishes Sigmund Freud called dreams the royal road to the
unconscious, believing that dreams represented unfulfilled wishes.
o Manifestcontentofadreamistheactualdreamanditsevents.
o Latentcontentofadreamisthehidden,unconsciousthoughtsordesires,often
expressed through symbols.
Dreams and Information Processing in the later part of the 20th century, another explanation for dreaming emerged. Consistent with the information-processing theory, this view asserts that in dreams as a way of with previous experiences.
Dreams and Waking Life yet another perspective on dreams argues that dreams are an extension of the conscious concerns of daily life in altered but not disguised form. Research has indicated that what people dream about is similar to what they think about and do while awake.
Dreams and Neural Activity new research using brain imaging techniques has indicated that the limbic system is very active during dreams, while the areas of the forebrain that are involved in working memory, attention, and logic are relatively inactive. This accounts for the highly emotional content of dreams, as well as the absence of critical insight and logic in many dreams.
Psychoactive.
Psychoactive drugs chemical substances that change moods, perceptions, mental functioning, or behavior.
In nearly every known culture throughout history, psychoactive drugs have been consumed, alcohol being the one most widely used. However, how drugs are used and which drugs are used have changed over the centuries.
o Themotivesforusingdrugshavechangedfromatimewhendrugsoralcohol were used as a part of or for , for nutritionalbenefits or for use as , to their consumption forrecreational reasons in contemporary society.
o Thedrugsthemselvesarestrongertoday,andsyntheticdrugsarealsobeing consumed. The risks accompanying the use of synthetic drugs in particular are quite high given the possibility of contamination during their manufacturing, and because the symptoms, side effects, and the short- and long-term consequences of their use is unknown.
o Ourknowledgeabouttheeffectsofpsychoactivedrugsisalsomuchgreaterthan in the past.
information gathered during the day is reprocessed
strengthening memories or integrating emotionally significant events
religious rituals
medicinal purposes
culturally-approved stimulants
Substance Use, Abuse, and Dependence
Substance use occasional use of drugs.
Substance abuse a pattern of drug use that diminishes the ability to fulfill
responsibilities at home, work, or school that results in repeated use of a drug in
dangerous situations or that leads to legal difficulties related to drug use.
Substance dependence addiction a pattern of compulsive drug taking that results
in tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or other specific symptoms for at least a year.
The causes of substance abuse and dependence are a complex combination of biological,
psychological, and social factors that varies from person to person and for the particular substance(s) being used.
Major depressants, their effects, the effects of an overdose and the extent to which they are susceptible to dependence.
Depressants: Alcohol, Barbiturates, and the Opiates
Depressants are chemicals that slow down behavior or cognitive processes.
Alcohol depressant that is the intoxicating ingredient in whiskey, beer, wine, and other fermented or distilled liquors.
o AlcoholisthemostfrequentlyusedpsychoactivedruginWesternsocieties,and
is the number-one drug problem in the United States with 9% of adults reporting
alcohol dependence or abuse.
o Excessive,chronicusecanharmvirtuallyeveryorganinthebody,beginning
with the brain.
o Thetotaleconomiccostofalcoholabuseanddependenceisstaggering,and
alcohol abuse is directly involved in more than 20,000 deaths annually.
o AfterAIDS,alcoholistheleadingcontributortodeathamongyoungpeople.o Alcoholaffectsvariousregionsofthebrain,andinlargequantities,cancause
death from alcohol poisoning.
o Despite its dangers, alcohol remains popular because of its short-term effects. It
calms the nervous system, causing users to relax or elevating their mood. It can also make people feel more courageous, less inhibited, more spontaneous, and more entertaining.
o Alcoholicmyopiaaconditionassociatedwithheavydrinkingthatleadsto difficulty focusing on relevant information and ignoring irrelevant information, which results in poor decision-making.
Binge Drinking on College Campuses
o Bingedrinkingoccursfrequentlyoncollegecampusesbecausetheyareamong
the few places where drunkenness is tolerated and often expected. One survey reported that nearly 68% of college students had consumed alcohol in the past month, and just over 40% of college students reported binge drinking.
o Bingedrinkingisdefinedas5ormoredrinksinarowformen,4ormore drinks for women.
o Frequentbingedrinkingisdefinedasbingedrinkingthreeormoretimesina two-week period.
o Frequentbingedrinkershadmoreproblems,andmoreseriousproblems,than other students, including missing classes, engaging in unprotected sex, getting into trouble with campus police, engaging in vandalism or violence, or getting hurt or injured.
Barbiturates potentially deadly depressants first used for the sedative and anticonvulsant properties, now used to treat such conditions as epilepsy and arthritis.
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Non-drinkersarealsoaffectedoncampuseswherebingedrinkingiscommonin that they may be unable to sleep or study, or they may find themselves caring for drunken friends or fending-off unwanted sexual advances. Strictcampusalcoholpoliciescaneffectivelyreducebingedrinkingratesover time.
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Theeffectsofbarbituratesaresimilartothoseofalcohol. Aswithalcohol,ifbarbituratesareconsumedbypregnantwomen,theycan produce birth defects.
Opiates drugs, such as opium and heroin, that dull the senses and induce feelings of euphoria, well-being, and relaxation.
o Opiumisderivedfromthesaptakenfromtheseedpodoftheopiumpoppy.
o Opiateshavealonghistoryofuseinfolkmedicineand,initsderivativeformof
morphine, as a pain-killer. Morphine compounds such as codeine are still used in
painkillers and other medications.
o Heroinandotheropiatesresembleendorphins,andoccupymanyofthesame
nerve-receptor sites. Regular use of heroin can lead to tolerance and to physical dependence.
Major stimulants, their effects, the effects of an overdose and the extent to which they are susceptible to dependence.
Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, and Cocaine
Stimulants drugs that stimulate the sympathetic nervous system and produced feelings of optimism and boundless energy.
Caffeine belongs to a class of drugs known as xanthine stimulants and is used to maintain wakefulness and alertness.
Nicotine one of the most dangerous and addictive stimulants in use today; the neurochemical properties of nicotine are similar to those in cocaine, amphetamines, and morphine.
o Dependingonthetimeandamountsmoked,nicotinecanhavesedatingor
stimulating effects because it affects levels of several neurotransmitters,
including norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin.
o Dependence,tolerance,andaddictionoccurwithnicotine,andnicotineaddiction
in teenagers can happen very quickly.
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Caffeineisfoundinmanybeveragesincludingenergydrinksand nonprescription medications and is considered a benign drug when consumed in small doses. Caffeineistheonlystimulantthatdoesnotappeartoaltersleepstagesorcause REM rebound, although its use results in a decrease in the number of sleep minutes and an increase in the time it takes to fall asleep. Dependenceandtolerancecanoccurinthosewhoregularlyconsumecaffeine. Arecenttrendinvolvingtheconsumptionofcaffeinatedalcoholicbeverages poses greater health risks than consuming alcohol or caffeine separately.
o Adolescentswhosmokearemorelikelytouseillicitdrugsandtodrinkheavily, and they have an increased risk of depression.
Amphetamines stimulants that initially produce rushes of euphoria often followed by sudden crashes and, sometimes, severe depression.
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Theonlylegitimatemedicalusesforamphetaminesaretotreatnarcolepsyand attention deficit disorder. However, they are widely used for recreational reasons in various forms of methamphetamine speed, fire, ice, crystal, crank, and Ecstasy. Therearemanyshort-andlong-termconsequencesofmethamphetamineuse.
Cocaine drug derived from the coca plant that, although producing a sense of euphoria by stimulating the sympathetic nervous system, also leads to anxiety, depression, and addictive cravings.
o Shortlyafteritsrefinementin1885,cocainewasusedasatopicalanestheticand
as an additive in many everyday products, like Coca-Cola.
o Cocaineblocksthereabsorptionoftheneurotransmitterdopamine,producing
feelings of euphoria.
o Undernormalconditions,whendopamineisreabsorbed,feelingsofsatietyor
satisfaction result. However, cocaine blocks these messages, creating a craving
for more.
o Addictionoccursbecausecocainedamagesthebraincellsthatproduce
dopamine, increasing the amount of cocaine needed to produce the same high in the future.
The effects of LSD and marijuana.
Hallucinogens and Marijuana
Hallucinogens any of a number of drugs, such as LSD and mescaline, that distort visual and auditory perception.
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) sometimes called acid, LSD produces hallucinations and delusions similar to those occurring in a psychotic state. The hallucinations and delusions can be intensely pleasurable or terrifying. These effects can vary for the same person on different occasions.
o Unlikedepressantsandstimulants,LSDandotherhallucinogensdonotappearto produce dependency and withdrawal effects. If LSD is taken repeatedly, tolerance builds up rapidly and the drug will fail to produce significant effects.
o LSDisgenerallytakenepisodicallyratherthanhabitually.
Marijuana a mild hallucinogen that produces a high often characterized by feelings of euphoria, a sense of well-being, and swings in mood from gaiety to relaxation; may also cause feelings of anxiety and paranoia.
o Marijuanaisthefourthmostpopulardrugamongcollegestudents(afteralcohol,
caffeine, and nicotine).
o Theactiveingredientinmarijuana,tetrahydrocannabinol(THC),isamild
hallucinogen that produces short-term physiological effects and some potential
long-term physiological damage.
o Whileundertheinfluenceofmarijuana,somepeopleexperiencetemporal
disintegration, or the inability to coordinate information. Users also experience distortions in time.
o Thedebateaboutthedangersofmarijuana(andtherelateddebateaboutits legalization) remains contentious because there are research-driven arguments to support both sides of the debate. There are documented medical benefits to marijuana regarding relief of side effects from chemotherapy, but other research has documented the cognitive deficits associated with the drugs use. And just recently, marijuana use was connected to reductions in the white matter of the frontal lobes, leading to an increase in impulsive behavior.
The biological, psychological, social and cultural factors that make it more likely someone will abuse drugs.
Explaining Abuse and Addiction
The causes of substance abuse and dependence are complex, the result of a combination of factors that vary from person to person, and depend on the drug or drugs that are used.
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Biological Factors
Atleasthalfofapersonssusceptibilitytodrugaddictionislinkedtogenetic factors. This link has been strongly established with respect to alcohol addiction. Even the subjective effects of alcohol (the euphoria or unpleasantness, etc.) appear to have a genetic component. Hereditycaninfluencetheamountofenzymesapersonhasthatbreakdown alcohol in the body. Tolerancelevelsforalcoholinthebloodalsomaybeinherited. Hereditymayalsoimpactthequantityofneurotransmittersinthebrainandthe number of receptors that respond to those neurotransmitters.
Is addiction a disease? The disease model has long been applied to alcohol addiction, most notably by Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Their treatment philosophy is predicated upon the belief that alcohol abuse is the symptom of a physiological condition. When viewed as a disease, addiction is seen as a biological problem the product of bad genes. Some psychologists argue that alcohol addiction is better described as a continuum ranging from mild to severe dependence rather than as a disease that one either does or does not have.
Psychological, Social, and Cultural Factors
Studieshaveshownthatpeopleuseorabusealcoholbecausetheyexpectthat drinking will help them to feel better. Similar expectations are held about marijuana. Theenvironmentinwhichachildgrowsupshapesattitudesandbeliefsabout drugs, ultimately playing a more powerful role than genetics in determining whether a person starts to drink or use drugs (although genetics are more influential in determining who eventually abuses substances). Culturalnormsandpracticesalsoinfluencethedegreetowhichpeopleusedrugs or alcohol. Alcohol plays an important role in the rituals of certain cultures, whereas other cultures limit or prohibit its consumption.
Describe the biological and psychological effects of meditation.
Meditation
Meditation any of the various methods of concentration, reflection, or focusing of thoughts undertaken to suppress the activity of the sympathetic nervous system.
o Zenmeditationconcentratesonrespirationtofocusattention.
o Sufismreliesonfrenzieddancingandprayerasthefocusofattention.
o Transcendentalmeditationpractitionersrepeatasound(mantra)tofocustheir thinking and help achieve a deeper state of relaxation.
o Inallofitsforms,meditationresultsinarelaxedyetfullyalertstate;astateachieved through suppression of the sympathetic nervous system (the part of the nervous system that prepares the body for strenuous activity).
Meditation results in the following physiological changes:o Lower rate of metabolism
o Reduced heart rate
o Reduced rate of respiration
o Decreased blood lactate
o Increased alpha brain waves (indicating relaxed wakefulness) Meditation has been used to treat the following conditions:
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Muscle tension resulting in pain
Attention-deficit hyperactive disorder in children (and the resultant stress felt by parents)
Drug use
In addition to physiological benefits, meditation also improves mood, visual-spatial
processing, and memory.
Explain why it is difficult to define hypnosis, the process of inducing hypnosis, and the role of hypnotic suggestions.
Hypnosis
First practiced in the mid-18th century by Viennese physician Anton Mesmer, hypnosis (originally called mesmerism) has been alternately criticized and embraced since.
Hypnosis trancelike state in which a person responds to suggestions.
o Defininghypnosishasbeendifficultbecauseindividualswhohaveundergone hypnosis describe their experiences in very different ways. Researchers debate whether or not it should be characterized as a state of altered consciousness.
The Process of Hypnosis most hypnotic induction procedures involve suggestions to relax. The hypnotist guides the subject to respond to suggestions for changes in their subjective experiences, perceptions, sensations, emotions, thoughts or behaviors. Some people can even hypnotize themselves (self-hypnosis).
Hypnotic Suggestions individuals vary in their susceptibility to hypnosis; susceptibility is related to ability to become absorbed in reading, music, and daydreaming.
o Hypnoticsuggestionscannotforcepeopletodofoolishorembarrassingthings
against their will.
o Posthypnoticcommandswhileunderhypnosis,subjectsmaybegiven
instructions to respond to certain sensations or behaviors in specific ways after they are aroused. These posthypnotic commands are popular among athletes as a way to reduce pain or enhance performance.
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o Posthypnoticcommandshavealsobeenusedtoenhancetheeffectivenessof psychotherapy, as an anesthetic by dentists, to treat some medical conditions or reduce pain and discomfort from some medical procedures, and temporarily diminish a persons desire to smoke or overeat.
This is what im suppose to be using
